The purpose of this article is to analyze the U.S. international agricultural trade policy by focusing on instruments and institutional arrangements. Policy decision-making is analyzed by means of three variables: 1) how interests are mobilized; 2) how information is disseminated; and 3) how spaces are occupied in deliberation arenas. The study refers to the corn sector and observes how the National Corn Growers Association operated to ensure subsidies and incentives for this supply chain along the elaboration of the 2002 and 2008 Farm Bills, as well as from other laws pertaining to agricultural and energy incentives. This paper provides evidences in favor of four arguments: first, empirical studies on the formulation and implementation of foreign trade policy, especially when it comes to agricultural issues, would greatly benefit with a greater attention on understanding the role domestic actors play in the decision-making processes; second, interest groups play a key role in this decision-making process; third, they provide the rationale for the formulation and implementation of the U.S. international agricultural trade policy; and, fourth, when the economic sector coordinates complex and relevant supply chains in the U.S. economy, it is hardly possible to revert the U.S. protectionist position in the Legislative branch.

Os objetivos deste trabalho foram complementar os estudos dos mecanismos genéticos da resistência e tolerância da soja à ferrugem-asiática e sugerir metodologias de melhoramento que permitam o acúmulo de genes maiores e menores. Seis experimentos foram realizados durante três safras em Londrina, PR, de 2005/06 a 2007/08, envolvendo cinco parentais e as gerações derivadas F2, F3 e F4. Foi utilizado o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com parcelas em covas. As metodologias propostas foram planejadas para superar as dificuldades do melhorista em selecionar genes menores na presença de genes maiores. Isto é resolvido conduzindo populações segregantes F2, F3 e F4 numerosas para melhorar as chances de encontrar recombinações favoráveis e submetendo-as à pressão do patógeno para aumentar a frequência de genótipos resistentes/tolerantes na população F4 ou F5 quando plantas individuais serão selecionadas para formação de progênies. Consequentemente, a frequência de progênies F5 ou F6 superiores possuidoras de alelos nos genes menores e maiores também será aumentada.

The objectives of this work were to complement the studies on the genetic control of soybean resistance to rust and to suggest a breeding methodology that allows the recombination and selection of soybean genotypes carrying major and minor genes for rust resistance. Six experiments were carried out in Londrina, PR during three growing seasons from 2005/06 to 2007/08 involving five parents and their derived F2, F3 and F4 segregating populations. A completely randomized design was used with single plant hill-plots. The proposed methodologies ware designed to overcome the difficulties breeders face while selecting for minor gene resistance in the presence of major genes. This is dealt with by breeding large F2, F3 and F4 segregant populations to improve the changes of the favorable gene combinations to appear and increasing genotype homozygosis under pathogen pressure to enhance the frequency of the favorable genotypes in the populations F5 populations. This will also increase the chances of superior F6 to appear from plant selection in the populations.

Induzidos por uma mudança estrutural na dinâmica da sociedade internacional, muitos municípios, por meio do exercício da chamada paradiplomacia ou diplomacia federativa, vêm elaborando instrumentos de gestão municipal para captar recursos via experiências de Cooperação Técnica Internacional (CTI). Nesse contexto, o objetivo deste artigo é mapear conceitualmente o fenômeno de CTI, visando a facilitar sua compreensão e suas consequências práticas para a sociedade brasileira.

Induced by a structural change in international society’s dynamics, many municipalities, through the practice of the so-called paradiplomacy or federative diplomacy, have been elaborating municipal management tools towards getting resources through International Technical Cooperation’s (ITC) experience. In this context, this paper purports to map the concept of the ITC phenomena, aiming at facilitating its comprehension and its practical consequences to Brazilian society.

O sucesso da cultura do girassol (Helianthus annuus L.) no Brasil está associado à escolha adequada de cultivares com adaptação a diferentes ambientes. Quando há respostas diferenciadas dos genótipos testados nos diferentes ambientes, a decisão de lançamento de novas cultivares pode ser facilitada com estudos de adaptabilidade e estabilidade desses genótipos para reduzir os efeitos da interação genótipos x ambientes. No país, essas informações tornam-se mais importantes, pois a maioria das cultivares utilizadas, ou em lançamento, foram desenvolvidas em outros países, com características de solo e clima diferentes. Este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar a adaptabilidade e estabilidade de genótipos de girassol na região subtropical do Brasil, uma das regiões promissoras do país para o seu cultivo. Os dados foram obtidos da Rede Nacional de Ensaios de Avaliação de Genótipos de Girassol, coordenada pela Embrapa Soja, entre os anos de 1999/2000 e 2003/2004. Os caracteres avaliados foram rendimentos de grãos e de óleo (kg ha-1). Os estudos de adaptabilidade e estabilidade foram realizados segundo as metodologias de PORTO et al. (2007), EBERHART & RUSSELL (1966) e ROCHA et al. (2005), as quais utilizam procedimentos biométricos distintos. Diferente do método de EBERHART & RUSSELL (1966), o de PORTO et al. (2007) selecionou genótipos que, apesar de terem médias gerais inferiores às testemunhas, tiveram bons desempenhos em ambientes específicos. Esse método foi mais rigoroso em selecionar genótipo, em relação ao de ROCHA et al. (2005). Para rendimento de grãos, o genótipo ACA 884 apresentou indicação para ambientes em geral, EM 677008, Agrobel 930 e GV 26048 foram indicados para ambientes favoráveis, e ACA 885, para os desfavoráveis. Para rendimento de óleo, ACA 884 teve indicação geral, GV 26048, CF 17, Agrobel 972 e Helio 358 tiveram indicação para ambientes favoráveis, e HT 01 e ACA 885, para os desfavoráveis.

The success of sunflower crop in Brazil is associated to the choice of adapted cultivars to different environments. When there are different genotypes answers in different environments, the release of new cultivars can be facilitated by carrying out studies of adaptability and stability of these genotypes to reduce the effects of genotypes x environments interaction. In Brazil, this information become more important, therefore the main cultivars had been developed in others countries, with different soil traits and climate. The objective of this study was to select sunflower genotypes for the sub-tropical region of Brazil. Experimental data from 1999/2000 to 2003/2004 were obtained by the National Sunflower Trials, coordinated by Embrapa Soja. The evaluated traits were grain and oil yields (kg ha-1). It was carried out a study of adaptability and stability of genotypes according to the methods proposed by PORTO et al. (2007), EBERHART & RUSSELL (1966) and ROCHA et al. (2005). Differently from the method of EBERHART & RUSSELL (1966), PORTO et al. (2007) selected genotypes, that despite of its lower overall average in relation to reference standard had good performance in specific environments. This method was more rigorous to select genotypes, when compared with ROCHA et al. (2005). For grain yield, genotype ACA 884 was indicated for general environments, EM 677008, Agrobel 930 and GV 26048 were indicated for favorable environments and ACA 885 for the unfavorable environments. In the same way, for oil yield, ACA 884 had general indication, GV 26048, CF 17, Agrobel 972 and Helio 358 are indicated for favorable environments and HT 01 and ACA 885 for the unfavorable ones.

Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: comparar a produtividade e a adaptação de genótipos de soja convencional e de soja transgênica resistente ao herbicida glifosato, de diferentes grupos de maturação, desenvolvidos pelo programa de melhoramento da Embrapa Soja para o Estado do Paraná; estudar a importância relativa dos efeitos de local, ano, cultivar e suas respectivas interações; e verificar a possibilidade de se estratificar o Estado em regiões mais homogêneas, para reduzir o número de locais nos ensaios de competição de linhagens. Foram utilizados dados de produtividade de grãos de ensaios regionais, no Estado do Paraná, entre 2001 e 2005. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso. A possibilidade de se realizar a estratificação do Estado em regiões mais homogêneas e de descarte de locais foi verificada pela significância da interação genótipo x ambiente entre locais. Não houve diferença significativa de produtividade entre a soja convencional e a transgênica, independentemente do grupo de maturação. O efeito de local foi mais importante que o efeito de ano, na composição dos ambientes. A estratificação do Estado do Paraná em regiões não trouxe vantagens, nos anos analisados, para os testes de linhagens; apenas os locais da região Sul mostraram algum grau de similaridade entre si.

The objectives of this research were: to compare productivity and adaptation of conventional and glyphosate-resistant genetically engineered soybean genotypes, from different maturity groups, developed by the breeding program at Embrapa Soja for Paraná State, Brazil; to study the relative importance of the effects of location, year, cultivar and their respective interactions; and to verify the possibility of stratifying the State in more homogeneous regions, in order to reduce the number of locations for line competition experiments. Paraná State yield data from regional experiments carried out in randomized complete block design from 2001 to 2005 were used. The possibility of stratifying the State in homogeneous regions and discarding similar locations was checked by the significance of genotype x environment interaction among locations. Yield was not significantly different between genetically engineered and conventional soybean, regardless of the maturity group. The effect of location was more important than the effect of year in the environment composition. The stratification of Paraná State in regions for yield testing soybean lines brought neither significant nor consistent advantages for the evaluated years. Only locations within the South region showed some degree of similarity.

Embora haja uma grande área para o cultivo de girassol no Brasil Central, poucas cultivares adaptadas encontram-se disponíveis no mercado. Esse trabalho teve o objetivo de selecionar cultivares de girassol para essa região de produção de grãos. Os dados foram obtidos da Rede Nacional de Ensaios de Avaliação de Cultivares de Girassol, coordenada pela Embrapa Soja, entre os anos de 2000 e 2004. Os caracteres avaliados foram rendimentos de grão e de óleo. Para a seleção das cultivares, dois critérios foram utilizados: i) a média geral obtida nos diferentes ambientes de teste; ii) a decomposição da média geral em ambientes favoráveis e desfavoráveis. A análise da decomposição da média geral possibilitou detectar para qual tipo de ambiente específico um genótipo poderia ser indicado. Para rendimento de grãos, o genótipo Helio 251 apresentou indicação geral; Milênio e CF 17 foram indicados para os ambientes favoráveis e, para os desfavoráveis, ACA 884, ACA 885 e ACA 872. Para rendimento de óleo, CF 13, Milênio, DK 4030, Helio 250 e ACA 872 tiveram indicação geral; enquanto que AG 966, GH 12, GV 26043, CF 17 e VDH 93 foram indicados para ambientes favoráveis, e VDH 488, Helio 251, ACA 884 e ACA 885 para os desfavoráveis. Em 2002, não foi realizada a decomposição da média geral. Nesse ano, Exp 37, AG 962, GV 26048 e AG 967 destacaram-se para rendimento de grãos e AG 962, AG 967, GV 26048, AG 972, BRS 191, Guarani, para rendimento de óleo.

Despite a large availability of areas suitable for sunflower cropping in Central Brazil, few adapted cultivars are available in the market. The objective of this work was to select sunflower cultivars adapted to this important production region. Experimental data from 2000 to 2004 were obtained by the National Sunflower Trials, coordinated by Embrapa Soja. The evaluated traits were grain and oil yields. Two criteria were used for selection of cultivars: i) the general mean obtained from different environments; ii) partitioning of general mean in favorable and unfavorable environments. Partitioning of the general mean allowed to detect the specific environment indicated for each cultivar. For grain yield, the cultivar Helio 251 presented general indication, Milênio and CF 17 could be indicated for favorable environments and ACA 884, ACA 885 and ACA 872 for the unfavorable ones. For oil yield, CF 13, Milênio, DK 4030, Helio 250 and ACA 872 had general indication; AG 966, GH 12, GV 26043, CF 17 and VDH 93 could be indicated for favorable environments, while VDH 488, Helio 251, ACA 884 and ACA 885 for the unfavorable conditions. In 2002, the partition of the general mean was not carried out. In this year, general mean of cultivars Exp 37, AG 962, GV 26048 and AG 967 were overweight the controls for grain yield and the cultivars AG 962, AG 967, GV 26048, AG 972, BRS 191, Guarani were overweight the controls for oil yield.

Asian soybean rust (ASR), caused by the phytopathogenic fungi Phakopsora pachyrhizi, has caused large reductions in soybean (Glycine max) yield in most locations in Brazil where it has occurred since it was first reported in May 2001. Primary efforts to combat the disease involve the development of resistant cultivars, and four dominant major genes (Rpp1, Rpp2, Rpp3 and Rpp4) controlling resistance to ASR have been reported in the literature. To develop new long-lasting soybean ASR resistance genes, we used field experiments to assess ASR leaf lesion type in 11 soybean genotypes (BR01-18437, BRS 184, BRS 231, BRS 232, BRSGO Chapadões, DM 339, Embrapa 48, PI 200487, PI 230970, PI 459025-A and PI 200526) and the 55 F2 generations derived from their biparental diallel crosses. The results indicated that PI 200487 and PI 200526 carry different dominant resistance major genes which are both different from Rpp2 through Rpp4. Furthermore, resistance to ASR in BR01-18437 is controlled by a single recessive major gene, also different from Rpp1 through Rpp4 and different from the genes in PI 200487 and PI 200526.

Soybean is one of the most important crops in Brazil and continuously generates demands for production technologies, such as cultivars resistant to diseases. In recent years, the Asian rust fungus (Phakopsora pachyrhizi Syd. & P. Syd 1914) has caused severe yield losses and the development of resistant cultivars is the best means of control. Understanding the genetic control and estimating parameters associated with soybean (Glycine max) resistance to P. pachyrhizi will provide essential information for cultivar selection. We investigated quantitative genetic control of P. pachyrhizi and estimated parameters associated to soybean yield in the absence and presence of this phytopathogen. Six cultivars and their 15 diallel derived F2 and F3 generations were assessed in experiments carried out in the absence and presence of P. pachyrhizi. The results indicated that soybean yield in the presence and absence of P. pachyrhizi is controlled by polygenes expressing predominantly additive effects that can be selected to develop new cultivars resistant or tolerant to P. pachyrhizi. These cultivars may prove to be a useful and more durable alternative than cultivars carrying major resistance genes.

This article discusses how ethnic conflicts negatively affect human rights and how international intervention acts for the defense of these rights. We thus compare the structure by which ethnic conflicts are triggered and an ideal scenario in which the state is capable of guaranteeing human rights, in keeping with the United Nations perspective. While identifying the points at which ethnic conflicts breach the foundations of human rights, we analyze a second scenario in which it is impossible to guarantee such rights, raising the issue of humanitarian intervention. Finally, we argue that although human rights have gained relevance in the post-Cold War period, they do not constitute a cohesive set of objectives. Therefore, in order to understand the selectiveness behind humanitarian interventions, we conclude that it is essential to consider other interests.

Dans cet article, on examine comment les conflits ethniques atteignent de façon négative les droits de l'homme et comment a lieu l'intervention internationale en vue de la défense de ces droits. Pour cela, on oppose la structure qui déclenche des conflits ethniques et un cadre idéal où l'État serait capable d'assurer l'exercice des droits humains, selon l’optique soutenue par les Nations Unies. Ainsi, à mesure qu'on dénonce les points où ce genre de conflit mine les fondements de ces droits, on construit un deuxième cadre où ils ne sont pas assurés, et c'est là que se pose la question de l'intervention humanitaire. Enfin, on observe que, malgré l'importance des droits humains dans l'après-Guerre Froide, ils ne forment pas une association d'objectifs. Il faut donc, pour comprendre les critères de sélection qui commandent les interventions humanitaires, prendre en compte d'autres intérêts.

Este trabalho foi conduzido com o objetivo de identificar a raça fisiológica de Plasmopara halstedii que ocorreu em plantas de girassol coletadas no campo experimental da Embrapa Soja, Londrina, PR, em 1998, 2001 e 2002 e avaliar a reação de genótipos de girassol ao míldio. Plântulas de girassol das diferenciadoras de raças e das cultivares foram inoculadas com suspensão de zoosporângios do patógeno e foram plantadas em caixas contendo areia autoclavada. As plântulas foram mantidas em câmara climatizada, com temperatura controlada em 21ºC, por 11 dias. Em seguida, as plantas foram aspergidas intensamente com água destilada, cobertas com saco plástico e mantidas no escuro, a 18ºC. No dia seguinte, foi observada a presença de esporulação nos cotilédones. As plantas que apresentaram esporulação foram consideradas suscetíveis e as sem esporulação foram resistentes. O resultado indicou tratar-se da raça 330 (antiga raça 7 americana), nas três ocasiões. Os genótipos de girassol Embrapa 122, BRS 191 e as cultivares de girassol ornamental BRS Capri M, BRS Encanto M, BRS Oásis, BRS Paixão M, BRS Pesqueiro M, BRS Refúgio M, BRS Saudade M e BRS Saudade U e seus respectivos parentais foram suscetíveis a P. halstedii raça 330. Os genótipos AGROBEL 910, AGROBEL 920, AGROBEL 960, AGROBEL 965, C11, EXP38, M734, M742 e RUMBOSOL 91 foram resistentes à raça 330 do patógeno e podem ser indicados aos agricultores para uso em regiões de risco de ocorrência da doença.

This research was carried out for identifying the physiological race of Plasmopara halstedii occurring in sunflower at the experimental field of Embrapa Soybean, Londrina, PR, Brazil, in 1998, 2001 and 2002 by evaluating the reaction of sunflower genotypes inoculated with downy mildew pathogen. Sunflower seedlings of the differentials set to identify races and of the cultivars were inoculated by immersion in zoosporangia suspension and were grown in autoclaved sand boxes. Seedlings were kept in growing chambers at 21ºC for 11 days. After this period, plants were intensively misted with distilled water, covered with plastic bag, and kept in the dark at 18ºC. In the next day, sporulation in cotyledons was observed. Plants with sporulation were considered susceptible and non-sporulated plants were resistant. Results indicated the occurrence of race 330 (former American race 7) in the three years evaluated. Sunflower genotypes Embrapa 122, BRS 191 and ornamental sunflower cultivars BRS Capri M, BRS Encanto M, BRS Oásis, BRS Paixão M, BRS Pesqueiro M, BRS Refúgio M, BRS Saudade M and BRS Saudade U and respective parents were susceptible to P. halstedii race 330. The genotypes AGROBEL 910, AGROBEL 920, AGROBEL 960, AGROBEL 965, C11, EXP38, M734, M742 and RUMBOSOL 91 were resistant to that race and can be used by the growers in regions of high potential for disease occurrence.

O objetivo deste artigo é verificar se o aperfeiçoamento das instituições democráticas brasileiras no tocante ao processo de formulação da política externa por meio da elaboração e da ampliação de canais institucionais que facilitem a interação entre policy-makers e atores das organizações da sociedade civil pode melhorar o atendimento das demandas dos grupos de interesse, bem como ampliar a qualidade técnica da diplomacia brasileira durante as negociações comerciais internacionais. Combinada a opção estratégica pelo multilateralismo, verificaremos ainda se esse aperfeiçoamento pode gerar maior credibilidade e legitimidade internacional para as ações do Brasil na OMC, inclusive possibilitando ao país moldar regimes internacionais de comércio favoráveis aos seus interesses nacionais. Buscarei demonstrar a viabilidade do argumento analisando os contenciosos das patentes farmacêuticas e da questão dos subsídios agrícolas, especificamente o caso do algodão contra os Estados Unidos na OMC.

The objective of this article is to verify if the perfectioning of the brazilian democratic institutions in what refers to the foreign affairs making process through elaboration and ampliation of the institutional ways which can make easier the interaction between policy-makers and civil society organization’s actors, can better the answer to demand from the technical quality of the brazilian diplomacy during the international commercial negotiations. Agreed the selection strategic at multilateralism, we will also verify if this perfectioning can create bigger international credibility and eligibility to the Brazilian actions at WTC, inclusively making possible to the country to mold international commerce regimes which favors to its national interests. We will search demonstrate the viability of the argument, analising the patents pharmaceuticals disputes and the agricultural subsidies questions, in specific, the cotton dispute in WTO with the United States.

The aim of this article is to verify the analytical feasibility of Two-Level Game - TLG theory to analyze Brazil’s action in the World Trade Organization - WTO. We simultaneously analyze whether the enhancement of Brazilian democratic institutions in relation to foreign policy-making can help meet demands by interest groups and expand the technical quality of Brazilian diplomacy in international trade negotiations. We further verify whether this improvement can generate greater credibility and international legitimacy for Brazil’s actions in the WTO, allowing the country to shape favorable international regimes for its interests. We develop this argument by analyzing Brazil’s drug patent case against the USA in the WTO.

Dans cet article, on cherche la viabilité analytique du Jeu à Deux Niveaux - JDN pour examiner la situation brésilienne dans l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce - OMC. On cherche à voir, en même temps, si le perfectionnement des institutions démocratiques brésiliennes en ce qui concerne le processus de formulation de la politique extérieure sera capable d'améliorer la réponse aux demandes des groupes d'intérêt et d'élargir la compétence technique de la diplomatie brésilienne dans les négociations commerciales internationales. On cherche aussi à savoir si ce perfectionnement peut faire monter la crédibilité et la légitimité internationale des démarches brésiliennes au sein de l'OMC, dans le sens de tourner en leur faveur les régimes internationaux. Pour cela, on analyse le contentieux des brevets pharmaceutiques mené contre les États-Unis au sein de l'OMC.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar a interação de genótipos com ambientes no Estado do Mato Grosso, MT. Locais, anos, épocas de semeadura, cultivares e respectivas interações foram analisados em relação a dados de produtividade de grãos de ensaios regionais realizados em delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, conduzidos de 1994-1995 a 1999-2000, em nove locais e duas épocas de semeadura. Análises de variâncias individuais e conjuntas de anos e locais foram efetuadas. Análises complementares foram realizadas, dividindo o Estado em duas regiões principais e cinco regiões menores, respectivamente: Norte e Sul de Cuiabá; e MT-Sul-A (área de Pedra Preta), MT-Sul-B (Rondonópolis e Itiquira), MT-Leste (Primavera do Leste e Campo Verde), MT-Central (Nova Mutum, Lucas do Rio Verde e Sorriso) e MT-Parecis (Campo Novo dos Parecis e Sapezal). Locais foram relativamente mais importantes que anos na produtividade da soja, portanto, deverá haver investimento no aumento do número de locais ao invés de anos a fim de melhorar a precisão experimental. A divisão do Estado em regiões tem pequeno impacto nos resultados de produtividade e, conseqüentemente, na eficiência do programa de melhoramento. Desenvolver genótipos com ampla adaptação é uma estratégia eficiente de melhoramento da soja para o Estado.

The objective of this work was to investigate the genotype-environment interaction in Mato Grosso State, MT. The relative importance of locations, years, sowing dates and cultivars and their interactions was analyzed from data collected in regional yield trials performed in a randomized complete block design with four replications, from 1994-1995 through 1999-2000, in nine locations and two sowing dates. Individual and pooled analyses of variance over years and locations were performed. Complementary analyses of variances partitioned MT State in two main and five smaller regions, respectively: North and South of Cuiabá; and MT-South-A (Pedra Preta area), MT-South-B (Rondonópolis and Itiquira), MT-East (Primavera do Leste and Campo Verde), MT-Central (Nova Mutum, Lucas do Rio Verde and Sorriso) and MT-Parecis (Campo Novo dos Parecis and Sapezal). Locations are relatively more important than years for yield testing soybeans in the MT State, therefore, investment should be made in increasing locations rather than years to improve experimental precision. Partitioning the MT State into regions has little impact on soybean yield testing results and, consequently, on the efficiency of the soybean breeding program in the State. Breeding genotypes with broad adaptation for the MT State is an efficient strategy for cultivar development.

O objetivo deste artigo é demonstrar que o protagonismo internacional do governo Lula busca ressuscitar a questão do desenvolvimento tendo como base tanto o regionalismo, quanto a recuperação da clivagem Norte/Sul na política internacional em benefício das novas demandas dos países em desenvolvimento. Baseado nessa constatação, indagamos se as estratégias internacionais e o diálogo Sul-Sul presente na retórica e na ação da política externa do governo Lula representam alianças duradouras ou coalizões efêmeras nas relações internacionais contemporâneas entre os países em desenvolvimento e menor desenvolvidos.

The objective of the article is to demonstrate that the international protagonism of Lula's government seeks to bring back to international politics the development issue based, on one hand, on regionalism, and on the North / South clivage on the other hand, in order to advance the new demands of developing coutries. It is aked, based on this assumption, if the international strategies and the South-South dialogue both present on retoric and actions of Lula's government foreign policy represent enduring alliances or ephemeral coalitions among developing and least developing countries.

O objetivo do artigo é demonstrar a existência de evidências históricas que permitem estabelecer relações entre os conceitos de livre-comércio e protecionismo, ambos utilizados na política de comércio exterior dos Estados Unidos. Ao mesmo tempo, busca evidenciar a importância da legislação e dos princípios formulados nesse país e seu papel explicativo nas motivações da estrutura do comércio internacional após 1945. Esse papel explicativo contribui decisivamente para a compreensão das rodadas de negociações do GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) até a criação da OMC (Organização Mundial de Comércio) em 1995. Do mesmo modo, demonstram-se as razões pelas quais o comércio internacional nos Estados Unidos é, além de questão de Estado, questão da sociedade.

The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the existence of historical evidence that allows us to establish relationships between the concepts of free trade and protectionism, which are both used in US foreign trade policy, At the same, it seeks to demonstrate the importance of legislation and of the principles formulated in that country, as well as their role in explaining the motivation behind the structure of international trade after 1945. This explanatory role contributes decisively toward our understanding of the successive rounds of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) negotiations until the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. Furthermore, it shows why US foreign trade is, beyond a matter of the State, a matter of society.

L'objectif de cet article est de montrer l'existence de traces historiques permettant de lier les concepts de libre-échange et protectionnisme, tous les deux employés dans la politique de commerce extérieur des Etats-Unis. Parallèlement, on cherche à souligner l'importance de la législation et des principes formulés dans ce pays et leur rôle explicatif concernant les motivations de la structure du commerce international après 1945. Ce rôle a en effet contribué à qu'on puisse mieux comprendre les tournées de négociations du GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) jusqu'à la création de l'OMC (Organisation Mondiale du Commerce), en 1995. On traite également des raisons pour lesquelles le commerce international aux Etats-Unis est non seulement une question d'Etat mais encore une question de la société.